Emotion and Behaviors Essay

This project requires that you observe two preschool-age children in the Child and Family Development Center (ground floor of the Alfred Emery Building) and, on the basis of your observations, report on a particular aspect of their development. In the following pages, three options will be presented–you may focus on either language development, play, or emotional behavior. Thus, the option you select will determine the nature of the observation you conduct, but it is also true that all projects must follow the same guideline. First, you must decide which of the three options you will pursue. Second, you should become familiar with the objectives of your observation (based on the descriptions presented in the following pages as well as any reading from the textbook that would prove useful in this regard). Third, you should begin planning your observation; this should include decisions regarding what you will focus on during your observations (e. g., behaviors, specific features of the physical and social context), what kinds of things you will try to take notes on in the course of your observation, which preschool class you will observe, and when you will plan to conduct your observation to assure that you will leave yourself enough time for a second chance should you fail to gather all of the necessary information on your first observation attempt. Fourth, you should conduct your observation, paying very careful attention to the behaviors and situations that you have (beforehand! ) decided are most import ant–in all cases, you will have to observe two children for 15 minutes each. Take notes and remember that these notes are all you will have to work from when writing your paper. I also would recommend that you allow yourself approximately 1 hour for your observation. This would allow you at least a few minutes at the beginning of the observation to get a feel for the classroom and the children in it and to identify the two children you will observe; ample time to observe each child for 15 minutes (which may be split into 5 minutes now, 5 minutes in a short while and 5 more minutes at the end of your hour); and even some time to make up for observations that don’t result in any useable information. Fifth, you must rely on your notes and the details of the assignment to prepare your paper. In all cases, I am asking that you provide some general, objective information about what you observed in each child, and that you interpret your observations in terms of what you’ve learned about preschooler development. In addition, the introduction of your paper should provide a brief description of who you observed, when you observed them and what was going on in the preschool classroom during your observation period. Finally, at the end of your paper, briefly comment upon your experience as an observer. For example, How easy or difficult was it? What did you learn? How confident are you in the representativeness of the behaviors you observed for each child? As usual, all papers MUST BE TYPED. You are limited to 3 typewritten pages so think carefully about how best to organize all of the information you wish to present. Papers are due at the beginning of class on Tuesday, April 15. *****The preschool schedule is as follows: There are three different preschool classes (children ages 3-5): one meets Mon/Wed/Fri, 8:30-11:30, one meets Tues/Thur, 8:30-11:30, and one meets Mon thru Fri, 12:30-3:30 pm). In all cases, there should be no problems if you observe (quietly) from the observation booths attached to each classroom, or from outside the playground fence. If you wish to observe from within the classroom, or if you wish to go onto the playground with the children, you will need the permission of the head teacher. Simply tell them about the project, mention the class and instructor’s name, and there should not be a problem (do this ahead of time! ). Following are descriptions of the three options, each focusing upon a different feature of preschoolers’ development. In this exercise, you will be concerned with describing and analyzing the child’s speech and determining such things as the depth and variety of his/her vocabulary. 1. It is important to look at the child’s speech in terms of Piaget’s concepts of egocentrism and sociocentrism. Egocentric speech is speech that does not take the other person into account; it is speech that, for all practical purposes, is private. There is no real effort to communicate with the other person; therefore, whatever is said is meaningful only to the speaker. Piaget identified three types of egocentric speech: (a) monologue, in which the individual talks only to himself and with no other persons present; (b) repetition, in which the individual repeats words and phrases over and over again as if to practice them or as if he simply enjoyed making the sounds; and (c) collective monologue, in which two or more persons are talking together but none of them is paying attention to what the others are saying. Each â€Å"conversation† is independent of the other conversation. Socialized speech, on the other hand, is public speech. It is intended to communicate with someone and each person takes into account what others are saying and responds accordingly. Q1: 2. Does the child engage in egocentric or socialized speech? What are the circumstances under which these types of speech are used? Vocabulary is the foundation of speech. We communicate by putting individual words together into properly constructed sentences and paragraphs. Presumably, the greater the number of words in our vocabularies, the greater the number and variety of sentences and ideas we can utter and transmit to others. Words have different meanings and serve different purposes. Moreover, words must be placed in the correct position within a sentence; thus, there are rules of grammar and syntax. Q2: What do you observe about the child’s vocabulary? In particular, examine the child’s speech for words that express relations and oppositions, for example, words such as and, or, not, same, different, more, less, instead, if, then, and because. Also, how varied or rich is the child’s vocabulary when he/she talks about the world and the people/things in it? Think in terms of general classes or categories of objects, persons, and events, then assess how many different words the child uses to discuss those categories and/or how many different categories the child uses. B. Observational Objectives To learn about the language production abilities of preschool children, and how children of preschool age use language as a means of social interaction. C. Procedure For this exercise, your purpose is to observe and record the language behaviors of children as they are engaging in social exchanges. Basically, you will need to write about the vocabularies demonstrated, the ways in which children use their language for the specific purpose of communicating with others (either adults or other children), and the degree to which language appears to be influenced by the setting in which it occurs. For this purpose, select two children and observe each of them for 15 minutes during a time when they have opportunity to interact with others in a small group setting–free-choice periods are probably best. (Do not try to observe two children at the same time! ). As you observe, take notes regarding the nature and variety of words used by each child (writing down exactly what the child says would of course be very useful), the child’s specific use of language to communicate with others, and the context in which all of this is going on. For each child, your paper should include a brief description of the language used (including information about vocabulary, communication and context) as well as an interpretation of each child’s language behavior in terms of what you’ve learned about development during the preschool years. II. PRESCHOOLERS’ PLAY A. Background Information Play is considered by some psychologists to be the most important activity in which the young child engages. Indeed, play activities pervade the lives of children from infancy throughout childhood. Some play seems obviously linked to the child’s observation of adults; other play seems to stem from the child’s fantasies and from experiences that she finds particularly enjoyable. There are a number of explanations of the major purposes of play. These range from play as getting rid of excess energy to play as a means of socioemotional expression. Play can be a group or an individual activity. Play is distinguished from non-play by its special characteristics, the most important of which are its voluntary nature and its complete structuring by the participants, with little regard for outside regulation. When play is governed by consistent rules, we say children are playing games. These rules give play a social dimension. The participants must put their own personal wishes into the background and abide by the requirements of the game and the wishes of the larger group. It is important to note that not everything children do is play, although they will sometimes try to make play out of what adults intend to be serious. Parten (1932) has identified six types of play, which are given in an accompanying list (next page). Remember that play, like all behavior, occurs in a physical and social context. Therefore, include in your report information on the equipment and materials the child was using in his play and who the child was playing with, if appropriate. B. Parten’s Six Classifications of Play or Social Interactions 1. Unoccupied Behavior: Here the child is not engaging in any obvious play activity or social interaction. Rather, she watches anything that is of interest at the moment. When there is nothing of interest to watch, the child will play with her own body, move around from place to place, follow the teacher, or stay in one spot and look around the room. 2. Onlooker Behavior: Here the child spends most of her time watching other children play. The child may talk to the playing children, may ask questions or give suggestions, but does not enter into play. The child remains within speaking distance so that what goes on can be seen and heard; this indicates a definite interest in a group of children, unlike the unoccupied child, who shows no interest in any particular group of children, but only a shifting interest in what happens to be exciting at the moment. 3. Solitary Play: This is play activity that is conducted independently of what anyone else is doing. The child plays with toys that differ from those used by other children in the immediate area within speaking distance, and she makes no effort to get closer to them or to speak to them. The child is focused entirely on her own activity and is uninfluenced by other children or their activities. 4. Parallel Play: Here the child is playing close to other children but is still independent of them. The child uses toys that are like the toys being used by the others, but he uses them as he sees fit and is neither influenced by nor tries to influence the others. The chid thus plays beside rather than with the other children. 5. Associative Play: Here the child plays with other children. There is a sharing of play material and equipment; the children may follow each other around; there may be attempts to control who may or may not play in a group, although such control efforts are not strongly asserted. The children engage in similar but not necessarily identical activity, and there is no division of labor or organization of activity or individuals. Each child does what he or she essentially wants to do, without putting the interests of the group first. 6. Cooperative or Organized Supplementary Play: The key word in this category is â€Å"organized. The child plays in a group that is established for a particular purpose: making some material product, gaining some competitive goal, playing formal games. There is a sense of â€Å"we-ness,† whereby one definitely belongs or does not belong to the group. There is also some leadership present–one or two members who direct the activity of the others. This therefore requires some division of labor, a taking of different roles by the group members, and the support of one child’s efforts by those of the others. C. Observational Objectives To learn about the distinguishing characteristics of different forms of play, specifically according to Parten’s classification of play behaviors. D. Procedure Familiarize yourself with Parten’s classifications of play as described above. Select two children in the preschool and observe each of them for 15 minutes, preferably during a free-choice period when the children are free to move about the room and play with who or what they wish. (Do not attempt to observe both children at the same time! ) As you observe each child, look for examples of each type of play or social interaction as described by Parten. Also, in addition to classifying each child’s play behaviors, observe whether there are any patterns to their play. For example, are there particular situations in which a child tends to be an onlooker, but in other situations he/she engages in parallel or cooperative play? As you observe, you should take notes regarding these relevant issues so that you will have something to work from in writing your paper. For each child, your paper should include a brief description of the types of play exhibited (including information about which type(s) are exhibited most frequently) and the social context which characterized each type of play. Additionally, you should provide an interpretation of your observations based on what you’ve learned about development during the preschool years. III. EMOTION BEHAVIOR A. Background Information Emotions are such a basic part of our psychological beings that we sometimes take them for granted. Some of our emotions are clearly identifiable by us. We know when we are angry, frightened, or joyous. At other times, however, we can have feelings that are not so clear; we may not be able to label what we feel. Whatever the case, emotions are internal experiences that are private and directly accessible only to the individual experiencing them. This being so, we cannot state with certainty what emotion another person is feeling. She must tell us, or we must infer the emotion on the basis of the individual’s behavior, facial expressions, and the event that preceded and might have caused the feeling. A child’s emotional behaviors become more refined and extensive as she matures. Therefore, a four- or five-year-old will typically be more emotionally expressive than a two-year-old. In this exercise, you will be trying to gain some understanding of the child’s emotional behaviors, of the range of her emotions and the kinds of situations that prompt these behaviors. Again, you can only infer what the child is feeling and cannot observe emotions directly. Therefore, be cautious in your interpretations and concentrate on the child’s obvious behaviors and the contexts in which they occur. 1. There are several emotions that are commonly found in preschool children: aggression, dependency and fear. Aggressive behavior is frequently defined as behavior that is intended to physically or psychologically hurt another person (or oneself) or to damage or destroy property. An important issue is whether a behavior is intentionally aggressive or simply an accidental occurrence. Further, it is argued by some that in order for a behavior to be termed aggressive, the aggressor must feel anger or hostility toward the â€Å"victim† and must derive satisfaction from hurting the victim. This kind of aggression is called hostile aggression. In contrast to hostile aggression, there can be cases where the aggressor is interested only in getting some object from the victim or achieving some goal. This is called instrumental aggression, and it need not involve anger or hostility. Observe the child’s behavior for instances of aggression, either toward  another child or an adult, or towards objects in the environment. Be certain to differentiate between intentional, hostile and instrumental acts of aggression. What kinds of situations or frustrations make the child angry? What behaviors by other people anger the child? How does the child express his/her anger? Dependency consists of such behaviors as clinging or maintaining proximity to adults or other children, seeking approval, recognition, assistance, attention, and reassurance, and striving for affection and support. It is important to recognize that all of us are dependent. The issue is to what degree and under what circumstances we show our dependency. It is also useful to distinguish between two basic types of dependency: a) instrumental dependency, which essentially is the necessary reliance we have on others for certain things that are beyond our capacity to do; and b) emotional dependency, which is a need to be near others and to have their support, affection and reassurance. It can also be the unwillingness or the selfperceived inability to do things for oneself that one can or should be able to do. It is important that, where possible, you distinguish instrumental dependency from emotional dependency behaviors. It is also important to note that as children mature, the characteristics of their dependency behaviors change. Very young children are likely to show clinging and proximity-seeking behaviors, whereas older children, who also have greater cognitive abilities, will likely seek attention and approval. Q3: 3. Fear is demonstrated by such behaviors as crying, withdrawing, seeking help, and avoiding the fear-producing situation. Fear can promote both dependency and aggressive behaviors. Nonetheless, fear can be expressed in such a way that it, and not aggression or dependency, is the primary emotion. Q4: 4. In what situations or activities is the child dependent, and, for example, seeks the presence, direction, or assistance of others? In what situations is the child independent and does not seek direction or assistance from others? What kinds of objects or situations appear to scare the child? In what ways does the child express his/her fears? How does he/she deal with his fears (e. g. , by withdrawing, confronting the fearful situation, seeking help)? In addition to the emotional behaviors just discussed, there are other feelings that children are capable of experiencing and expressing. You should be alert to as many of the child’s affective states as possible. For example, there are the feelings of pleasure and displeasure, frustration, boredom and sadness. Like adults, children will differ as to how accurately they can identify and/or express what they feel. Q5: What kinds of things does the child find pleasant? What activities, play materials, stories, games and so on, seem to be particularly attractive to the child? How does the child express that pleasure? Q6: What kinds of things are unpleasant or uncomfortable for the child? In what situations does the child appear to be ill at ease? How does she express her displeasure? Q7: Are all or most of the child’s feelings expressed with equal strength, or does their intensity vary with the particular feeling or situation? B. Observational Objectives To learn about the differences in children’s emotional behaviors and the range of emotional responses in preschool children. C. Procedure Select two children, observe and record each child’s behavior for a 15-minute period (do not attempt to observe both children at the same time! ). Record behaviors in as much detail as possible (attending to the kinds of things that would help you answer the above questions) and be sure to include descriptions of the physical and social context as they apply to the emotional behaviors observed. IT IS RECOMMENDED THAT YOU OBSERVE CHILDREN DURING THE VERY BEGINNING OF THEIR PRESCHOOL CLASS SO THAT YOU WILL BE ABLE TO SEE THEM AS THEY ARE BEING DROPPED OFF BY THEIR PARENTS AND THEN MAKING THEIR INITIAL ADJUSTMENT TO THEIR PRESCHOOL SETTING. Your paper should include a brief description of each child’s behavior (including the different kinds of emotions, the contexts in which they occurred and the relative frequency of each expression) as well as an interpretation or comment on each child using some of the questions and background information provided above. Finally, compare the two children, looking at the range of emotional expression, intensity of expression, and what evokes the emotional responses. In short, summarize how the children differ from each other in this area of functioning.

Negative Effects of Technology on the Society’s Security and Privacy

Continuous studies on possible technological developments are being done everyday as initiated by private companies and the government military. Needless to say, these technologies, particularly those funded by private companies have been developed aside from making huge profits, to benefit the society in almost every aspect in their lives especially in terms of making their lives easier and more comfortable. Similarly, those developed by the government may have been initially done mostly for military and government purposes, but almost always; such technology comes to be marketed to the masses later on. Examples of which include the online technologies such as cellular phones, the computer and the internet. Cellular phones, computers and the internet have been for many years now, widely available for commercial use. Undeniably, such technologies have made casual life more productive in terms of the speed in which work can now be done. Cellular phones allow cordless communication in almost all places, all stations in the world; computers allow speedier processing of transactions, calculations and many other tasks; and the internet allows not only global communication but also better and more widely available databases of information which almost everyone with internet access can utilize. Attached with such array of commercial benefits however, are possibilities of misuse and thus disadvantages that could not only affect one individual but also huge numbers of populations at one time in general. With these, technologies come more ways of violation of individual privacy as well as security. These stem from such technologies’ nature of mass connection. The number of cellular phone users has been increasing. From 1997 to 2002, there has been 10-fold increase in global usage reaching 787 million (â€Å"GSM to Pass One-Billion Mark This Year†). This may mean better connection for these people but this may also mean an increase in the number of people probable of being violated of privacy. It is true that it is prohibited to access account information from private companies, but since the use of airwaves in this particular technology allows the personal tracking of the location of an individual, privacy cannot always be ensured. There are still people who have unlimited access to such information and are capable of such violation, that is, location tracking without the consent of the concerned individual. This is especially true with the number of hackers, both experimenting and professional, out practicing.   Individual information from private companies could also be tapped indiscriminately especially by government officials for their specific purposes. This may be beneficial (but may still be unethical) if the person concerned is a real crook, but for innocent individuals, the violation of privacy would be unwarranted. The rise of the computers and the internet creates a new breed of crime. Computers are an efficient way of storing important and sometimes company critical files. This computer function allows company’s easier management and access to their files which are in many ways beneficial. But these benefits are not limited to the companies as the storage of information in the computer also allows professionals, particularly hackers, access to the information. Just recently, 12 December 2006, it was reported by CNN that a number of names and personal information were exposed when a hacker attacked the database of the computer system of the University of California, Los Angeles (â€Å"Hacker Attack at UCLA Affect 800,000 people†). According to the same report, a survey released in October of this year showed that about a hundred colleges experienced a similar incident during the previous 12 months. The information stolen in such cases usually include names, birth dates, medical records, social security numbers, home addresses and other personal information (â€Å"Hacker Attack at UCLA Affect 800,000 people†). Clearly, the computers and the internet allow newer and more technical way of thieving, the most controversial of which is identity theft. The use of the internet has now evolved to allow even the purchase of items from objects as simple books to even loans and transactions can now be done conveniently through the internet using the credit card. It is this nature of internet transactions that allows identity theft through the internet. According to a report done by the Federal Trade Commission in 2003, the reported form of identity theft has been limited to those involving credit card transactions. According to the same report, about 13% of the victims reported that their personal information was obtained during transactions during credit card purchases. Among those purchases include those done through the internet.   Such information can be used by the thief in many ways such as obtaining government documents, purchasing online, obtaining loans, housing transactions, employment and filing of tax returns (Federal Trade Commission). These are just some examples of how technology, particularly phones, the computer and the internet disadvantage individuals. There could be a lot more other ways. Phones and computers have also been used in propagating pornography especially with the increase in use of video cameras, file sharing and websites that support such. Computer viruses had been and can still be easily distributed to corrupt several company and even government files, causing significant losses both in the concerned company as well as in the society in general. Freund cited a survey of the FBI that about 500 U.S. companies suffered significant financial losses amounting to $455.8 million in 2002. Technology is a powerful tool and is undeniably beneficial to the society especially with the ease in living it contributes to every individual. But as much as it is powerful and beneficial, it can also do harm because everything with advantages can always be exploited to bring otherwise. The results that technology brings just all depend on how the user chooses to use it. Works Cited Freund, G. â€Å"Perspective: Hacking 2003, The New Agenda.† Cnet News.Com. Cnet Networks, Inc. 2006. Federal Trade Commission. â€Å"Identity Theft Survey Report.† Sep 2003. Synovate. â€Å"GSM to Pass One Billion Mark This Year.† 2003. Cellular.co.za. â€Å"Hacker Attack at UCLA Affect 800,000 People.† CNN.com. 12 December 2006. Cable News Network LLP.      

Breast Cancer

Some methods used to diagnose breast carcinoma are mammograms, MRI’s, and biopsies (NCI, 2010). A staging system is standardized way for the cancer care team to summarize information about how far a cancer has spread (ACS, 2012). The most common system used to describe the stages of breast cancer is the American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) TNM system (ACS, 2012). Each stage has different prognoses with varying survival rates as well (Marissa, 2011). There are also many ways to prevent breast cancer including maintain a healthy weight, avoiding the alcohol consumption, and by getting an annual mammogram (Reynolds, 2010). A genetic mutation that raises the risk of breast cancer is found in up to 60 percent of U. S. women, making it the first truly common breast cancer susceptibility gene (Metcalf Metcalf, 2008). Other breast diseases besides breast cancer are breast fat necrosis and fibrocystic breast disease (Sacks, 2011; Silverman, 1994). These diseases do not necessarily lead to breast cancer and can be treated (Sacks, 2011; Silverman, 1994). Keywords: – breast cancer, ducts, lobules, tumor, invasive (infiltrating carcinoma), noninvasive (noninfiltrating carcinoma), Ductal Carcinoma In Situ (DCIS), Invasive Lobular Carcinoma (ILC), intraductal carcinoma, nonfunctioning breast tissue, estrogen, lymph nodes, mammogram, MRI (magnetic resonance imaging), core biopsy, somatic mutations, fine needle aspiration biopsy, stereotactic biopsy, FGFR2, BRCA1,  BRCA2,  CDH1,  PTEN,  STK11, AR,  ATM,  BARD1,  BRIP1, CHEK2, DIRAS3,  ERBB2,  NBN,  PALB2,  RAD50, metastasis, fat necrosis, fibrocystic breast disease Breast Cancer Cells are the building blocks of living things and cancer grows out of normal cells in the body (Dugdale, 2010). Cancer is the uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells in the body (Dugdale, 2010). Cancer harms the body when damaged cells divide uncontrollably to form lumps or masses of tissue called tumors (except in the case of leukemia where cancer doesn’t allow normal blood function by abnormal cell division in the blood stream (Peter, 2011). Normal cells in the body follow an orderly process of growth, division, and death, this is called apoptosis, and when this process breaks down, cancer begins to form (Peter, 2011). Cancer has been around since prehistoric times, and breast cancer is one of the earliest forms to have been mentioned (Eisenpreis, 1999). In the United States, breast cancer death rates are higher than those for any other cancer, besides lung cancer (breastcancer. org, 2012). Today, about 1 in 8 women (12%) will develop breast cancer in her lifetime (Martin, 2012). Breast cancer is a cancer that starts in the tissues of the breast (Yi-Bin David, 2011). In rare cases, breast cancer can start in other areas of the breast (Yi-Bin David, 2011). Breast cancer can be invasive or noninvasive (Yi-Bin David, 2011). Invasive meaning it has spread from the milk duct (lobule) to the other tissues in the breast (Eisenpreis, 1999). Noninvasive means that it has not yet invaded other breast tissue (Yi-Bin David, 2011). Types of Breast Cancer Breast cancer can begin in different areas of the breast – the ducts, the lobules, or sometimes, the tissue in between (breastcancer. org, 2012). There are several different types of breast cancer, including breast cancer in men (breastcancer. org, 2012). Some include Ductal Carcinoma In Situ, Invasive Lobular Carcinoma, and Male Breast Cancer (breastcancer. rg, 2012). Ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS), or intraductal carcinoma, is a noninvasive breast cancer in the lining of the milk ducts that has not yet invaded nearby tissues of the breast (Yi-Bin David, 2011). It may progress to invasive cancer if it is left untreated (Yi-Bin David, 2011). DCIS is the earliest form of breast cancer and is usually found during a mammogram done as part of breast cancer screening (Mayo Clinic Staff, 2011). Because of the increased use of mammograms, the rate at which DCIS is diagnosed has increased dramatically in recent years (Mayo Clinic Staff, 011). When a woman has DCIS, she is at higher risk for the cancer coming back or also at higher risk for developing a new breast cancer than a person who has never had breast cancer before (breastcancer. org, 2012). Experts believe that 20 to 50% of women with DCIS will later develop an invasive breast cancer within 10 years of the DCIS diagnosis (Hoffman, 2010). The risk of lymph node involvement with ductal carcinoma in situ is only 1% to 2% so the lymph nodes under the arm do not need to be removed, as may be  the case with other types of breast cancer (Hoffman, 2010). In seven out of 10 cases, breast-conserving lumpectomies – instead of mastectomies – were an effective treatment option (Hoffman, 2010). This will depend upon the size of your tumor and the extent of its spread throughout your breast and the surrounding lymph nodes (Hoffman, 2010). While DCIS isn’t life-threatening, it does require treatment to prevent the condition from becoming invasive (Mayo Clinic Staff 2011). Most recurrences happen within 5 to 10 years after the first diagnosis and the chances of that happening are under 30 percent (breastcancer. rg, 2012). Invasive Lobular Carcinoma is an invasive type of breast cancer that begins in the milk-producing glands (lobules) of the breast (Mayo Clinic Staff, 2011). When a person has ILC, this means that the cancer cells have broken out of lobule where they started and they now have the potential to spread to other areas or tissues of the body (Mayo Clinic Staff, 2011). This type of cancer is more difficult to se e on imaging because of the way it grows with spreading branches (Hopkins, 2012). The treatments for invasive lobular carcinoma fall into two broad categories: Local and Systemic Treatment. Local treatments treat the tumor and the areas surrounding it, such as the chest and lymph nodes (breastcancer. org, 2012). Systemic treatments travel throughout the body to destroy any type of cancer cells that may have left the original tumor and traveled to other tissues to reduce the risk of the cancer coming back (breastcancer. org, 2012). ILC cells can proceed to infiltrate fatty tissue and create a web-like mass (Stephan, 2008). This web of cancer cells may feel like a thickened area of breast tissue, and may not cause concern or pain at first (Stephan, 2008). Unfortunately, if it is left undetected, ILC can develop into a mass that is about ? inch ( 2 centimeters) to about 2 inches (5 centimeters) or bigger in size, before causing more noticeable symptoms (Stephan, 2008). Breast cancer in men is a very rare disease (Attebery, Adams ; Weiss, 2011). But the truth is that boys and girls, men and women all have breast tissue (Attebery, Adams ; Weiss, 2011). Men have a small amount of nonfunctioning breasts tissue (breast tissue that cannot produce milk) that is concentrated in the area directly behind the nipple on the wall of the chest (Attebery, Adams ; Weiss, 2011). A type of breast cancer that has spread outside of the duct and into the surrounding tissue is called invasive or infiltrating carcinoma (ASC, 2012). Some symptoms that may occur in males developing breast cancer include lumps, changes to the nipple or breast skin, or discharge of fluid from the nipple (National Cancer Institute, 2011). Men who have an altered gene related to breast cancer have an increased risk of developing breast cancer (National Cancer Institute, 2012). The major problem is that breast cancer in men is more often than not diagnosed later than breast cancer in women because men are less likely to be suspicious of an abnormality in that area (Wax, 2012). Also, their small amount of breast tissue is harder to feel, making it more difficult to catch these cancers early, and allowing tumors to spread more quickly to the surrounding tissues (Wax, 2012). Breast cancer in men is detected the same way as breast cancer is detected in women – through self-examination, clinical examination, or mammography (x-ray of the breast) (ASC, 2012). Methods for Diagnosis Breast cancer is sometimes found after symptoms appear, but many women with early breast cancer have no symptoms (American Cancer Society, 2011). This is why getting the recommended screening tests before any symptoms develop is so important (American Cancer Society, 2011). Three types of methods used for diagnosis are mammograms, MRI’s, and biopsies (NCI, 2010). A mammogram is a low-dose x-ray picture of the breast and can be used to check for breast cancer in women who don’t have any signs or symptoms of the disease. (NCI, 2010) The results are recorded on x-ray film or directly into a computer for a doctor called a radiologist to examine (Webmd, 2010). There are different types of mammograms including Screening mammograms and Diagnositc mammograms (Webmd, 2010). Mammograms detect tiny bits of calcium that develop in dead cancer cells (Hoffman, 2010). As more and more cancer cells age and die, theses calcifications grow nd on the mammogram, they appear as a shadowy area (Hoffman, 2010). Current guidelines from the American College Radiology, the American Cancer Society, and the Society for Breast Imaging recommend that women receive annual mammograms starting at age 40, even if they have no symptoms or family history of breast cancer (ACR, 2010). For every 1,000 women who have screening mammogram: 100 are recalled to get more mammogr aphy or ultrasound images, 20 are recommended for needle biopsy and 5 are diagnosed with breast cancer (ACR, 2010). A mammography unit is a rectangular box that houses the tube in which x-rays are produced (Radiological Society of North America, 2011). Once it is carefully aimed at the part of the body being examined, an x-ray machine produces a small burst of radiation that passes through the body, recording an image on photographic film or a special digital image recording plate (Radiological Society of North America, 2011). A brief medical history and a history of specific problems related to the breast, such as pain or a palpable lump (one that is felt), is obtained prior to the mammogram (Stoppler, 2011). All jewelry and clothing in the chest and breast area are removed prior to the mammogram (Stoppler, 2011). The patient’s breasts are then placed on a firm flat panel and a gentle, but firm pressure is applied to the breast with another panel, resulting in compression of the breast between the two panels (Stoppler, 2011). The compression of the breast is necessary to obtain quality mammograms and spreads the breast tissue out so that the x-ray image displays the inner breast tissue with good resolution (Stoppler, 2011). Dense bone absorbs much of the radiation while soft tissue, such as muscle, fat and organs, allow more of the x-rays to pass through them (Radiological Society of North America, 2011). As a result, bones appear white on the x-ray, soft tissue shows up in shades of gray and air appears black (Radiological Society of North America, 2011). The results of the mammogram can be given to the patient either by the radiologist at the completion of the mammogram or by the patient’s doctor who ordered the mammogram (Stoppler, 2011). An abnormal mammogram does not mean you have cancer (Stoppler, 2011). In some cases, it may just be an area of thicker or denser breast tissue, a cyst, or a benign lump such as a fibro adenoma (Stoppler, 2011). Unlike mammography which uses low dose x-rays to produce an image of the breast, MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) uses powerful magnetic fields and radio waves to create images of the breast (Imaginis, 2012). The MRI system has the ability to switch magnetic fields and radio waves to achieve views in any plane and from any orientation while x-ray mammography requires re-orientation of the breast and mammography system for each view desired (Imaginis, 2012). MRI is a huge magnet and the woman gets put in the middle of the magnet; the magnetic field is turned on and then turned off again (Eisenpreis, 1999). The way the magnetized cells return to normal gives an image (Eisenpreis, 1999). The MRI finds lumps better than it tells whether or not they are cancerous (Eisenpreis, 1999). However, MRI can be good at showing how big a cancer is, once it has been found on the mammogram (Eisenpreis, 1999). A breast biopsy removes a sample of breast tissue that is looked at under a microscope to check for breast cancer and is usually done to check a lump found during a breast examination or a suspicious area found on a mammogram, ultrasound, or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) (Marshall, 2009). During a fine-needle aspiration biopsy, the doctor inserts a thin needle into a lump and removes a sample of cells or fluid (Marshall, 2009). Nowadays, doctors might have decided to do something called stereotactic biopsy, where a patient lies on a table, with her breasts hanging down (Eisenpreis, 1999). A mammogram is taken to show where the lump is and a device holding a needle quickly shoots in and removes a few cells from the lesion (Eisenpreis, 1999). There is also something called a core biopsy that uses a larger needle to take out a piece of tissue, instead of just cells (Eisenpreis, 1999). A doctor numbs your skin with a shot of numbing medicine where the biopsy needle will be inserted and once the area is numb, a small cut is made in the skin from where the needle with a special tip is inserted into breast tissue (Marshall, 2009). Three to twelve samples will be taken to acquire the most accurate results (Marshall, 2009). Classifications and Associated Prognoses The stages of breast cancer are usually expressed as a number on a scale of 0 through IV – with stage 0 describing non-invasive cancers that remain within their original location and stage IV describing invasive cancers that have spread outside the breast to other parts of the body (Marisa, 2011). Cancer stage is based on four characteristics; the size of the cancer, hether the cancer is invasive or non-invasive, whether the cancer is in the lymph nodes, whether the cancer has spread to other parts of the body beyond the breast (Marisa, 2011). Sometimes doctors use the term â€Å"locally advanced† or regionally advanced† to refer to large tumors that involve the breast skin, underlying chest structures, changes to the breast’s shape, and lymph node enlargement that is visible or that the doctor can feel during an exam (Marisa , 2011). The three ways that cancer spreads in the body are: Through tissue where cancer invades surrounding normal tissue, through the lymph system where the cancer invades the lymph system and travels through the lymph vessels to other places in the body, and through the blood, where cancer invades the veins and capillaries and travels through the blood to other places in the body (NCI, 2009). When cancer cells break away from the primary (original) tumor and travel through the lymph nodes or blood to other places in the body, another (secondary) tumor may form (NCI, 2009). This process is called metastasis (NCI, 2009). The stage of the breast cancer can help the patient and the doctor understand the prognosis (the most likely outcome of the disease) and make decisions about treatment, along with all the other results in the pathology report (Marisa, 2011). A staging system is standardized way for the cancer care team to summarize information about how far a cancer has spread (ACS, 2012). The most common system used to describe the stages of breast cancer is the American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) TNM system (ACS, 2012). The TNM staging system classifies cancers based on their T, N, and M stages (ACS, 2012). The letter â€Å"T† followed by a number 0 to 4 describes the tumor’s size and spread to the skin or to the chest wall under the breast (ACS, 2012). The letter â€Å"N† followed by a number from 0 to 3 indicates whether the cancer has spread to lymph nodes near the breast and, if so, how many lymph nodes are affected. The letter â€Å"M† followed by a 0 or 1 indicates whether the cancer has spread to distant organ (ACS, 2012). There are typically five stages (0 to 4) with sub-stages that indicate the prognosis for breast cancer (Lippman, 2005). Stage 0 where the carcinoma is insitu and no lymph nodes are affected had 99 percent 5 year survival rate (ACS, 2012). Stage IA also has a high rate, 92 percent, in which the tumor is equal to 2 centimeters (ACS, 2012). In stage IB, the tumor is 2 centimeters with micro metastases in 1 to 3 axillary lymph nodes but the cancer has not spread to distant sites (ACR, 2012). In stage IIA, the cancer cells have moved to the ipsilateral nodes and the 5 year survival rate lowers to 82 percent (Lippman, 2012). In stage IIB, the cancer cells have spread to movable ipsilateral nodes and the tumor is over 5 centimeters (Lippman, 2012). The 5 year survival rate lowers to 65 percent (ACS, 2012). In stage IIIA, there is no evidence of a primary tumor and no distant spreading (ACS, 2012). The 5 year survival rate lowers to 47 percent (Lippman, 2005). The tumor could be between 2 and 5 centimeters but there is still no distant spreading at this point (ACS, 2012). In stage IIIB the tumor has extended to the chest wall but there is still no distant metastases (Lippman, 2005). The 5 year survival rate lowers again to a 44 percent (Lippman, 2005). In stage IV the cancer can be any size (any T) and may or may not have spread to nearby lymph nodes (any N) (ACS, 2012). It has spread to distant organs or to lymph nodes far from the breast (M1) (ACS, 2012). The most common sites of spread are the bone, liver, brain, or lung (ACS, 2012). The survival rate lowers to 14 percent (Lippman, 2005). Prevention Methods Three ways to prevent breast cancer are by maintaining a healthy weight, avoiding alcohol consumption, and getting an annual mammogram (Reynolds, 2010). Mammogram screening, early diagnosis and better treatments have all contributed to the reduction in breast cancer cases by around 2 percent a year and the improved survival rate in the U. S. (Reynolds, 2010). Experts say now the focus needs to shift on improving personal lifestyle habits to prevent the disease even more (Reynolds, 2010). Early detection of breast cancer with screening mammography means that treatment can be started earlier in the course of the disease, possibly before it has spread (NCI, 2010). A medical team found an 11 percent lower risk of breast cancer in those women consuming the more healthful diet, including more whole grains, fruits and vegetables and less fatty, processed foods (Reynolds, 2010). They also found that those consuming large amounts of alcohol had a 21 percent increased risk (Reynolds, 2010). Drinking alcohol during adolescence has been linked to an increased risk of breast cancer, especially for girls with a family history of the disease (Reynolds, 2010). Exercise also plays a role in the reduction of breast cancer risk (Reynolds, 2010). In one study from the Women’s Health Initiative, as little as 1. 25 to 2. 5 hours per week of brisk walking reduced a woman’s risk by 18 percent (Reynolds, 2010). Walking 10 hours a week reduce the risk more (Reynolds, 2010). Diet and exercise can lead to weight reduction, another positive lifestyle change that can influence breast cancer disease risk (Reynolds, 2010). Many breast cancers are fueled by estrogen, a hormone produced in fat tissue (Reynolds, 2010). Experts suspect that more fat tissue equals more estrogen resulting in more cases of breast cancer that could possibly be avoided (Reynolds, 2010). Genetic ; Hereditary Influence According to researchers, the mutations in the gene, which is called FGFR2, raise the risk of breast cancer by 20 to 60 percent. (Metcalf ; Metcalf, 2008). A genetic mutation that raises the risk of breast cancer is found in up to 60 percent of U. S. omen, making it the first truly common breast cancer susceptibility gene (Metcalf ; Metcalf, 2008). Women with faulty copies of the genes BRCA1 or BRCA2 have 50 percent to 85 percent chance of getting breast cancer in their lifetimes, but they are rare genes and only account for 5 percent to possibly 10 percent of breast cancer cases (Metcalf ; Metcalf, 2008). Only 7% of all breast cancers are hereditary (Hirshaut ; Pressman, 2008). Of these hereditary cancers, 45% is caused by BRCA1 while 35% is caused by BRCA2 (Hirshaut ; Pressman, 2008). (Hirshaut ; Pressman, 2008). Variations of the  BRCA1,  BRCA2,  CDH1,  PTEN,  STK11, and  TP53  genes increase the risk of developing breast cancer (Chen, 2007). The  AR,  ATM,  BARD1,  BRIP1, CHEK2, DIRAS3,  ERBB2,  NBN,  PALB2,  RAD50, and  RAD51  genes are associated with breast cancer (Chen, 2007). Cancers occur when a buildup of genetic mutations in critical genes – those that control cell growth and division or the repair of damaged DNA – allow cells to grow and divide uncontrollably to form a tumor (Honrado, Osorio, Palacios ; Benitez, 2006). These changes, which are called somatic mutations, are not inherited (Honrado, Osorio, Palacios ; Benitez, 2006). Less commonly, gene mutations inherited from a parent increase the risk of developing cancer (Honrado, Osorio, Palacios ; Benitez, 2006). In people with these inherited genetic changes, additional somatic mutations in other genes must occur for cancer to develop (Honrado, Osorio, Palacios ; Benitez, 2006). Additional factors that may influence a person’s risk of developing breast cancer include gender, age, ethnic background, a history of previous breast cancer, certain changes in breast tissue, and hormonal factors (Thompson ; Easton, 2004). A history of breast cancer in closely related family members is also an important risk factor, particularly if the cancer occurred at an early age (Thompson ; Easton, 2004). Women who have inherited certain mutations in these genes have a high risk of developing breast cancer, ovarian cancer, and several other types of cancer during their lifetimes (Thompson ; Easton, 2004). Inherited changes in several other genes, including CDH1, PTEN, STK11, and TP53, have been found to increase the risk of developing breast cancer (Thompson ; Easton, 2004). In hereditary breast cancer, the way that cancer risk is inherited depends on the gene involved (Walsh ; King, 2007). For example, mutations in the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes are inherited in an autosomal dominant patter, which means one copy of the altered gene in each cell is sufficient to increase a person’s chance of developing cancer (Walsh ; King, 2007). In other cases, the inheritance of breast cancer risk is unclear (Walsh ; King, 2007). It is important to emphasize that people inherit an increased risk of cancer, not the disease itself (Walsh ; King, 2007). Not all people who inherit mutations in these genes will develop cancer (Walsh ; King, 2007). Other Breast Diseases Two other diseases found in the breast other than breast carcinoma are breast fat necrosis and fibrocystic breast disease (Sacks, 2011; Silverman, 1994). Fybrocystic breast disease is a commonly used phrase to describe painful, lumpy breasts (Sacks 2011). Hormones made in the ovaries can make a woman’s breasts feel swollen, lumpy, or painful before during menstruation each month (Sacks 2011). Fibrocysitc changes in the breast with the menstrual cycle affect over half of women (Sacks, 2011). Symptoms are usually worse right before the menstrual period, and then improve after the period starts (Sacks, 2011). Symptoms can include pain in both breasts, breasts that feel swollen and heavy, pain or discomfort under the arms, and thick or lumpy breasts (Sacks, 2011). This disease can be treated with medication like acetaminophen or ibuprofen (Sacks, 2011). Breast Fat necrosis is a benign condition that can occur in your breast (Silverman. 1994). It consists of fatty tissue that has been bruised, injured, or has died (Silverman, 1994). Once fatty tissue has been injured or has died, it can gradually change into scar tissue or may collect as liquid within an oil cyst (Silverman, 1994). Fat necrosis does not lead to the development of breast cancer, but it may sometimes cause breast pain (Silverman, 1994). An area of fat necrosis in your breast may feel like a fairly hard lump, or like a section of thick skin (Silverman, 1994). The person may see some drainage from the nipple that is nearest to the bruised region (Silverman, 1994). The nipple may sometimes even pull inward a little bit or the breast skin may dimple above the lump of fat necrosis (Silverman, 1994). Each case of fat necrosis is unique, so treatments will vary but if the fat necrosis has occurred recently, using warm compresses may help it subside (Silverman, 1994). When fat necrosis causes pain, the person can use ibuprofen and aspirin, but if that doesn’t help, ask your doctor if a prescription medication may be used (Silverman, 1994). About 39,520 women in the U. S. were expected to die in 2011 from breast cancer, though death rates have been decreasing since 1990 — especially in women under 50 (â€Å"Learn about cancer,† 2011). These decreases are thought to be the result of treatment advances, earlier detection through screening, and increased awareness (â€Å"breastcancer. org,† 2012). References Peter, C. (2011, October 20). Medical news today. Retrieved from http://www. medicalnewstoday. com/info/cancer-oncology/ breastcancer. org. (n. d. ). (2012, March 14). Retrieved from http://www. breastcancer. org/symptoms/understand_bc/statistics. jsp Yi-Bin , C. , ; David , Z. (2011, 15 12). A. d. a. m. medical encyclopedia. Retrieved from http://www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0001911/ Mayo Clinic Staff. (2011, June 23). Ductal carcinoma in situ (dcis). Retrieved from http://www. mayoclinic. com/health/dcis/DS00983 Avon Foundation Breast Cancer (n. d. ). In http://www. hopkinsmedicine. org/avon_foundation_breast_center/breast_cancers_other_conditions/invasive_lobular_carcinoma. html. Stephan, P. (2008, July 24). Invasive Lobular Carcinoma. Retrieved from about. com website: http://breastcancer. about. com/od/types/p/ilc. html Dugdale, D. (2010, August 14). Pubmed. Retrieved from http://www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0002267/ Martin, L. (2012, January 18). Breast cancer facts. WebMD. Retrieved from http://women. webmd. om/guide/breast-cancer-arm-yourself-with-facts National Cancer Insitute. (2012). National cancer institute. Retrieved from http://www. cancer. gov/cancertopics/pdq/treatment/malebreast/Patient/page1 Attebery, L. , Adams, J. H. , ; Weiss, M. (2011, november 22). Male breast cancer. Retrieved from http://www. breastcancer. org/symptoms/types/male_bc/ National Cancer Institute. ( 2011). Male breast cancer. Retrieved from http://www. nlm. nih. gov/medlineplus/malebreastcancer. html Wax, A. (2011). Breast cancer in men: Symptoms, causes, treatments. Retrieved from http://www. webmd. com/breast-cancer/guide/breast-cancer-men American Cancer Society. (2011, September 29). American cancer society. Retrieved from http://www. cancer. org/Cancer/BreastCancer/DetailedGuide/breast-cancer-diagnosis NCI. (2010, September 22). National cancer institute. Retrieved from http://www. cancer. gov/cancertopics/factsheet/detection/mammograms Marshall, S. (2010, November 12). Webmd. Retrieved from http://women. webmd. com/mammogram-16573 Hoffman, M. (2010 February 18). Ductal carcinoma (invasive and in situ. Retrieved from http://www. webmd. com/breast-cancer/ductal-carcinoma-invasive-in-situ ACR. (2012). Mammography facts. Retrieved from http://www. ammographysaveslives. org/facts. aspx Hirshaut, Y. , ; Pressman, P. I. (2008). Breast cancer: The complete guide. (5th ed. ). New York, NY: Bantam Dell. Radiological Society of North America. (2011, June 24). Radiologyinfo. org. Retrieved from http://www. radiologyinfo. org/en/info. cfm? pg=mammo ASCO. (2011, January 26). Breast Cancer- Male Retrieved from http://www. cancer. net/patient/Cancer Types/Breast Cancer – Male/? skid= Stoppler, M. C. (2011). Medicinenet. Retrieved from http://www. medicinenet. com/mammogram/article. html Imaginis. (2012). Breast cancer mri – magnetic resonance imaging. Retrieved from http://www. maginis. com/mri-scan/magnetic-resonance-breast-imaging-mri-mr-3 Eisenpreis, B. (1999). A young woman’s guide to breast cancer prevention. New York: The Rosen Publishing Group. Marshall, S. (2009, April 29). Breast biopsy. Retrieved from http://women. webmd. com/breast-biopsy Metcalf, T. , Metcalf, G. (2008). Perspective on diseases and disorders. (1 ed. ). Michigan: Thomson Gale. Chen, S. ( 2007, April 10). Meta-analysis of BRCA1 and BRCA2 penetrance. Retrieved from http://ghr. nlm. nih. gov/condition/breast-cancer Honrado, E. , Osorio, A. , Palacios, J. , Benitez, J. (2006, September 25). Pathology and gene expression of hereditary breast tumors associated with brca1, brca2 and chek2 gene mutations. Retrieved from http://ghr. nlm. nih. gov/condition/breast-cancer/show/References Thompson, D. , Easton, D. (2004, July 9). The genetic epidemiology of breast cancer genes. Retrieved from http://ghr. nlm. nih. gov/condition/breast-cancer Walsh, T. , King, M. (2007, February 11). Ten genes for inherited breast cancer. Retrieved from http://ghr. nlm. nih. gov/condition/breast-cancer Marisa , W. (2011, August 03). Stages of breast cancer. Retrieved from http://www. breastcancer. org/symptoms/diagnosis/staging. jsp NCI. 2009). Breast cancer treatment (pdq). Retrieved from http://www. cancer. gov/cancertopics/pdq/treatment/breast/Patient/page2 Lippman, M. E. (2005). Cancer monthly. Retrieved from http://www. cancermonthly. com/cancer_basics/breast. asp American Cancer Society. (2012, March 06). Breast cancer. Retrieved from http://www. cancer. org/Cancer/BreastCancer/DetailedG uide/breast-cancer-staging Reynolds, D. (2010, March 26). Emaxhealth. Retrieved from http://www. emaxhealth. com/1506/98/36185/one-third-breast-cancer-cases-avoided-diet-and-exercise. html NCI. (2010, September 22). National cancer institute. Retrieved from http://www. cancer. ov/cancertopics/factsheet/detection/mammograms Sacks, D. N. (2011, November 16). Fibrocystic breast disease. Retrieved from http://www. nlm. nih. gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000912. htm Silverman, P. (1994, July). Breast fat necrosis – symptoms, causes and treatments. Retrieved from http://breastcancer. about. com/od/whenitsnotcancer/tp/Breast-Fat-Necrosis. htm American Cancer Society. U. S. Breast cancer statistics. (2011, September 29). Retrieved from http://www. cancer. org/Cancer/BreastCancer/index Hail, J. (2011, 09). National breast cancer foundation, inc.. Retrieved from http://www. nationalbreastcancer. org/About-Breast-Cancer/ Breast Cancer Breast Cancer Breast Cancer Some methods used to diagnose breast carcinoma are mammograms, MRI’s, and biopsies (NCI, 2010). A staging system is standardized way for the cancer care team to summarize information about how far a cancer has spread (ACS, 2012). The most common system used to describe the stages of breast cancer is the American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) TNM system (ACS, 2012). Each stage has different prognoses with varying survival rates as well (Marissa, 2011). There are also many ways to prevent breast cancer including maintain a healthy weight, avoiding the alcohol consumption, and by getting an annual mammogram (Reynolds, 2010). A genetic mutation that raises the risk of breast cancer is found in up to 60 percent of U. S. women, making it the first truly common breast cancer susceptibility gene (Metcalf Metcalf, 2008). Other breast diseases besides breast cancer are breast fat necrosis and fibrocystic breast disease (Sacks, 2011; Silverman, 1994). These diseases do not necessarily lead to breast cancer and can be treated (Sacks, 2011; Silverman, 1994). Keywords: – breast cancer, ducts, lobules, tumor, invasive (infiltrating carcinoma), noninvasive (noninfiltrating carcinoma), Ductal Carcinoma In Situ (DCIS), Invasive Lobular Carcinoma (ILC), intraductal carcinoma, nonfunctioning breast tissue, estrogen, lymph nodes, mammogram, MRI (magnetic resonance imaging), core biopsy, somatic mutations, fine needle aspiration biopsy, stereotactic biopsy, FGFR2, BRCA1,  BRCA2,  CDH1,  PTEN,  STK11, AR,  ATM,  BARD1,  BRIP1, CHEK2, DIRAS3,  ERBB2,  NBN,  PALB2,  RAD50, metastasis, fat necrosis, fibrocystic breast disease Breast Cancer Cells are the building blocks of living things and cancer grows out of normal cells in the body (Dugdale, 2010). Cancer is the uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells in the body (Dugdale, 2010). Cancer harms the body when damaged cells divide uncontrollably to form lumps or masses of tissue called tumors (except in the case of leukemia where cancer doesn’t allow normal blood function by abnormal cell division in the blood stream (Peter, 2011). Normal cells in the body follow an orderly process of growth, division, and death, this is called apoptosis, and when this process breaks down, cancer begins to form (Peter, 2011). Cancer has been around since prehistoric times, and breast cancer is one of the earliest forms to have been mentioned (Eisenpreis, 1999). In the United States, breast cancer death rates are higher than those for any other cancer, besides lung cancer (breastcancer. org, 2012). Today, about 1 in 8 women (12%) will develop breast cancer in her lifetime (Martin, 2012). Breast cancer is a cancer that starts in the tissues of the breast (Yi-Bin David, 2011). In rare cases, breast cancer can start in other areas of the breast (Yi-Bin David, 2011). Breast cancer can be invasive or noninvasive (Yi-Bin David, 2011). Invasive meaning it has spread from the milk duct (lobule) to the other tissues in the breast (Eisenpreis, 1999). Noninvasive means that it has not yet invaded other breast tissue (Yi-Bin David, 2011). Types of Breast Cancer Breast cancer can begin in different areas of the breast – the ducts, the lobules, or sometimes, the tissue in between (breastcancer. org, 2012). There are several different types of breast cancer, including breast cancer in men (breastcancer. org, 2012). Some include Ductal Carcinoma In Situ, Invasive Lobular Carcinoma, and Male Breast Cancer (breastcancer. rg, 2012). Ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS), or intraductal carcinoma, is a noninvasive breast cancer in the lining of the milk ducts that has not yet invaded nearby tissues of the breast (Yi-Bin David, 2011). It may progress to invasive cancer if it is left untreated (Yi-Bin David, 2011). DCIS is the earliest form of breast cancer and is usually found during a mammogram done as part of breast cancer screening (Mayo Clinic Staff, 2011). Because of the increased use of mammograms, the rate at which DCIS is diagnosed has increased dramatically in recent years (Mayo Clinic Staff, 011). When a woman has DCIS, she is at higher risk for the cancer coming back or also at higher risk for developing a new breast cancer than a person who has never had breast cancer before (breastcancer. org, 2012). Experts believe that 20 to 50% of women with DCIS will later develop an invasive breast cancer within 10 years of the DCIS diagnosis (Hoffman, 2010). The risk of lymph node involvement with ductal carcinoma in situ is only 1% to 2% so the lymph nodes under the arm do not need to be removed, as may be  the case with other types of breast cancer (Hoffman, 2010). In seven out of 10 cases, breast-conserving lumpectomies – instead of mastectomies – were an effective treatment option (Hoffman, 2010). This will depend upon the size of your tumor and the extent of its spread throughout your breast and the surrounding lymph nodes (Hoffman, 2010). While DCIS isn’t life-threatening, it does require treatment to prevent the condition from becoming invasive (Mayo Clinic Staff 2011). Most recurrences happen within 5 to 10 years after the first diagnosis and the chances of that happening are under 30 percent (breastcancer. rg, 2012). Invasive Lobular Carcinoma is an invasive type of breast cancer that begins in the milk-producing glands (lobules) of the breast (Mayo Clinic Staff, 2011). When a person has ILC, this means that the cancer cells have broken out of lobule where they started and they now have the potential to spread to other areas or tissues of the body (Mayo Clinic Staff, 2011). This type of cancer is more difficult to se e on imaging because of the way it grows with spreading branches (Hopkins, 2012). The treatments for invasive lobular carcinoma fall into two broad categories: Local and Systemic Treatment. Local treatments treat the tumor and the areas surrounding it, such as the chest and lymph nodes (breastcancer. org, 2012). Systemic treatments travel throughout the body to destroy any type of cancer cells that may have left the original tumor and traveled to other tissues to reduce the risk of the cancer coming back (breastcancer. org, 2012). ILC cells can proceed to infiltrate fatty tissue and create a web-like mass (Stephan, 2008). This web of cancer cells may feel like a thickened area of breast tissue, and may not cause concern or pain at first (Stephan, 2008). Unfortunately, if it is left undetected, ILC can develop into a mass that is about ? inch ( 2 centimeters) to about 2 inches (5 centimeters) or bigger in size, before causing more noticeable symptoms (Stephan, 2008). Breast cancer in men is a very rare disease (Attebery, Adams ; Weiss, 2011). But the truth is that boys and girls, men and women all have breast tissue (Attebery, Adams ; Weiss, 2011). Men have a small amount of nonfunctioning breasts tissue (breast tissue that cannot produce milk) that is concentrated in the area directly behind the nipple on the wall of the chest (Attebery, Adams ; Weiss, 2011). A type of breast cancer that has spread outside of the duct and into the surrounding tissue is called invasive or infiltrating carcinoma (ASC, 2012). Some symptoms that may occur in males developing breast cancer include lumps, changes to the nipple or breast skin, or discharge of fluid from the nipple (National Cancer Institute, 2011). Men who have an altered gene related to breast cancer have an increased risk of developing breast cancer (National Cancer Institute, 2012). The major problem is that breast cancer in men is more often than not diagnosed later than breast cancer in women because men are less likely to be suspicious of an abnormality in that area (Wax, 2012). Also, their small amount of breast tissue is harder to feel, making it more difficult to catch these cancers early, and allowing tumors to spread more quickly to the surrounding tissues (Wax, 2012). Breast cancer in men is detected the same way as breast cancer is detected in women – through self-examination, clinical examination, or mammography (x-ray of the breast) (ASC, 2012). Methods for Diagnosis Breast cancer is sometimes found after symptoms appear, but many women with early breast cancer have no symptoms (American Cancer Society, 2011). This is why getting the recommended screening tests before any symptoms develop is so important (American Cancer Society, 2011). Three types of methods used for diagnosis are mammograms, MRI’s, and biopsies (NCI, 2010). A mammogram is a low-dose x-ray picture of the breast and can be used to check for breast cancer in women who don’t have any signs or symptoms of the disease. (NCI, 2010) The results are recorded on x-ray film or directly into a computer for a doctor called a radiologist to examine (Webmd, 2010). There are different types of mammograms including Screening mammograms and Diagnositc mammograms (Webmd, 2010). Mammograms detect tiny bits of calcium that develop in dead cancer cells (Hoffman, 2010). As more and more cancer cells age and die, theses calcifications grow nd on the mammogram, they appear as a shadowy area (Hoffman, 2010). Current guidelines from the American College Radiology, the American Cancer Society, and the Society for Breast Imaging recommend that women receive annual mammograms starting at age 40, even if they have no symptoms or family history of breast cancer (ACR, 2010). For every 1,000 women who have screening mammogram: 100 are recalled to get more mammogr aphy or ultrasound images, 20 are recommended for needle biopsy and 5 are diagnosed with breast cancer (ACR, 2010). A mammography unit is a rectangular box that houses the tube in which x-rays are produced (Radiological Society of North America, 2011). Once it is carefully aimed at the part of the body being examined, an x-ray machine produces a small burst of radiation that passes through the body, recording an image on photographic film or a special digital image recording plate (Radiological Society of North America, 2011). A brief medical history and a history of specific problems related to the breast, such as pain or a palpable lump (one that is felt), is obtained prior to the mammogram (Stoppler, 2011). All jewelry and clothing in the chest and breast area are removed prior to the mammogram (Stoppler, 2011). The patient’s breasts are then placed on a firm flat panel and a gentle, but firm pressure is applied to the breast with another panel, resulting in compression of the breast between the two panels (Stoppler, 2011). The compression of the breast is necessary to obtain quality mammograms and spreads the breast tissue out so that the x-ray image displays the inner breast tissue with good resolution (Stoppler, 2011). Dense bone absorbs much of the radiation while soft tissue, such as muscle, fat and organs, allow more of the x-rays to pass through them (Radiological Society of North America, 2011). As a result, bones appear white on the x-ray, soft tissue shows up in shades of gray and air appears black (Radiological Society of North America, 2011). The results of the mammogram can be given to the patient either by the radiologist at the completion of the mammogram or by the patient’s doctor who ordered the mammogram (Stoppler, 2011). An abnormal mammogram does not mean you have cancer (Stoppler, 2011). In some cases, it may just be an area of thicker or denser breast tissue, a cyst, or a benign lump such as a fibro adenoma (Stoppler, 2011). Unlike mammography which uses low dose x-rays to produce an image of the breast, MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) uses powerful magnetic fields and radio waves to create images of the breast (Imaginis, 2012). The MRI system has the ability to switch magnetic fields and radio waves to achieve views in any plane and from any orientation while x-ray mammography requires re-orientation of the breast and mammography system for each view desired (Imaginis, 2012). MRI is a huge magnet and the woman gets put in the middle of the magnet; the magnetic field is turned on and then turned off again (Eisenpreis, 1999). The way the magnetized cells return to normal gives an image (Eisenpreis, 1999). The MRI finds lumps better than it tells whether or not they are cancerous (Eisenpreis, 1999). However, MRI can be good at showing how big a cancer is, once it has been found on the mammogram (Eisenpreis, 1999). A breast biopsy removes a sample of breast tissue that is looked at under a microscope to check for breast cancer and is usually done to check a lump found during a breast examination or a suspicious area found on a mammogram, ultrasound, or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) (Marshall, 2009). During a fine-needle aspiration biopsy, the doctor inserts a thin needle into a lump and removes a sample of cells or fluid (Marshall, 2009). Nowadays, doctors might have decided to do something called stereotactic biopsy, where a patient lies on a table, with her breasts hanging down (Eisenpreis, 1999). A mammogram is taken to show where the lump is and a device holding a needle quickly shoots in and removes a few cells from the lesion (Eisenpreis, 1999). There is also something called a core biopsy that uses a larger needle to take out a piece of tissue, instead of just cells (Eisenpreis, 1999). A doctor numbs your skin with a shot of numbing medicine where the biopsy needle will be inserted and once the area is numb, a small cut is made in the skin from where the needle with a special tip is inserted into breast tissue (Marshall, 2009). Three to twelve samples will be taken to acquire the most accurate results (Marshall, 2009). Classifications and Associated Prognoses The stages of breast cancer are usually expressed as a number on a scale of 0 through IV – with stage 0 describing non-invasive cancers that remain within their original location and stage IV describing invasive cancers that have spread outside the breast to other parts of the body (Marisa, 2011). Cancer stage is based on four characteristics; the size of the cancer, hether the cancer is invasive or non-invasive, whether the cancer is in the lymph nodes, whether the cancer has spread to other parts of the body beyond the breast (Marisa, 2011). Sometimes doctors use the term â€Å"locally advanced† or regionally advanced† to refer to large tumors that involve the breast skin, underlying chest structures, changes to the breast’s shape, and lymph node enlargement that is visible or that the doctor can feel during an exam (Marisa , 2011). The three ways that cancer spreads in the body are: Through tissue where cancer invades surrounding normal tissue, through the lymph system where the cancer invades the lymph system and travels through the lymph vessels to other places in the body, and through the blood, where cancer invades the veins and capillaries and travels through the blood to other places in the body (NCI, 2009). When cancer cells break away from the primary (original) tumor and travel through the lymph nodes or blood to other places in the body, another (secondary) tumor may form (NCI, 2009). This process is called metastasis (NCI, 2009). The stage of the breast cancer can help the patient and the doctor understand the prognosis (the most likely outcome of the disease) and make decisions about treatment, along with all the other results in the pathology report (Marisa, 2011). A staging system is standardized way for the cancer care team to summarize information about how far a cancer has spread (ACS, 2012). The most common system used to describe the stages of breast cancer is the American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) TNM system (ACS, 2012). The TNM staging system classifies cancers based on their T, N, and M stages (ACS, 2012). The letter â€Å"T† followed by a number 0 to 4 describes the tumor’s size and spread to the skin or to the chest wall under the breast (ACS, 2012). The letter â€Å"N† followed by a number from 0 to 3 indicates whether the cancer has spread to lymph nodes near the breast and, if so, how many lymph nodes are affected. The letter â€Å"M† followed by a 0 or 1 indicates whether the cancer has spread to distant organ (ACS, 2012). There are typically five stages (0 to 4) with sub-stages that indicate the prognosis for breast cancer (Lippman, 2005). Stage 0 where the carcinoma is insitu and no lymph nodes are affected had 99 percent 5 year survival rate (ACS, 2012). Stage IA also has a high rate, 92 percent, in which the tumor is equal to 2 centimeters (ACS, 2012). In stage IB, the tumor is 2 centimeters with micro metastases in 1 to 3 axillary lymph nodes but the cancer has not spread to distant sites (ACR, 2012). In stage IIA, the cancer cells have moved to the ipsilateral nodes and the 5 year survival rate lowers to 82 percent (Lippman, 2012). In stage IIB, the cancer cells have spread to movable ipsilateral nodes and the tumor is over 5 centimeters (Lippman, 2012). The 5 year survival rate lowers to 65 percent (ACS, 2012). In stage IIIA, there is no evidence of a primary tumor and no distant spreading (ACS, 2012). The 5 year survival rate lowers to 47 percent (Lippman, 2005). The tumor could be between 2 and 5 centimeters but there is still no distant spreading at this point (ACS, 2012). In stage IIIB the tumor has extended to the chest wall but there is still no distant metastases (Lippman, 2005). The 5 year survival rate lowers again to a 44 percent (Lippman, 2005). In stage IV the cancer can be any size (any T) and may or may not have spread to nearby lymph nodes (any N) (ACS, 2012). It has spread to distant organs or to lymph nodes far from the breast (M1) (ACS, 2012). The most common sites of spread are the bone, liver, brain, or lung (ACS, 2012). The survival rate lowers to 14 percent (Lippman, 2005). Prevention Methods Three ways to prevent breast cancer are by maintaining a healthy weight, avoiding alcohol consumption, and getting an annual mammogram (Reynolds, 2010). Mammogram screening, early diagnosis and better treatments have all contributed to the reduction in breast cancer cases by around 2 percent a year and the improved survival rate in the U. S. (Reynolds, 2010). Experts say now the focus needs to shift on improving personal lifestyle habits to prevent the disease even more (Reynolds, 2010). Early detection of breast cancer with screening mammography means that treatment can be started earlier in the course of the disease, possibly before it has spread (NCI, 2010). A medical team found an 11 percent lower risk of breast cancer in those women consuming the more healthful diet, including more whole grains, fruits and vegetables and less fatty, processed foods (Reynolds, 2010). They also found that those consuming large amounts of alcohol had a 21 percent increased risk (Reynolds, 2010). Drinking alcohol during adolescence has been linked to an increased risk of breast cancer, especially for girls with a family history of the disease (Reynolds, 2010). Exercise also plays a role in the reduction of breast cancer risk (Reynolds, 2010). In one study from the Women’s Health Initiative, as little as 1. 25 to 2. 5 hours per week of brisk walking reduced a woman’s risk by 18 percent (Reynolds, 2010). Walking 10 hours a week reduce the risk more (Reynolds, 2010). Diet and exercise can lead to weight reduction, another positive lifestyle change that can influence breast cancer disease risk (Reynolds, 2010). Many breast cancers are fueled by estrogen, a hormone produced in fat tissue (Reynolds, 2010). Experts suspect that more fat tissue equals more estrogen resulting in more cases of breast cancer that could possibly be avoided (Reynolds, 2010). Genetic ; Hereditary Influence According to researchers, the mutations in the gene, which is called FGFR2, raise the risk of breast cancer by 20 to 60 percent. (Metcalf ; Metcalf, 2008). A genetic mutation that raises the risk of breast cancer is found in up to 60 percent of U. S. omen, making it the first truly common breast cancer susceptibility gene (Metcalf ; Metcalf, 2008). Women with faulty copies of the genes BRCA1 or BRCA2 have 50 percent to 85 percent chance of getting breast cancer in their lifetimes, but they are rare genes and only account for 5 percent to possibly 10 percent of breast cancer cases (Metcalf ; Metcalf, 2008). Only 7% of all breast cancers are hereditary (Hirshaut ; Pressman, 2008). Of these hereditary cancers, 45% is caused by BRCA1 while 35% is caused by BRCA2 (Hirshaut ; Pressman, 2008). (Hirshaut ; Pressman, 2008). Variations of the  BRCA1,  BRCA2,  CDH1,  PTEN,  STK11, and  TP53  genes increase the risk of developing breast cancer (Chen, 2007). The  AR,  ATM,  BARD1,  BRIP1, CHEK2, DIRAS3,  ERBB2,  NBN,  PALB2,  RAD50, and  RAD51  genes are associated with breast cancer (Chen, 2007). Cancers occur when a buildup of genetic mutations in critical genes – those that control cell growth and division or the repair of damaged DNA – allow cells to grow and divide uncontrollably to form a tumor (Honrado, Osorio, Palacios ; Benitez, 2006). These changes, which are called somatic mutations, are not inherited (Honrado, Osorio, Palacios ; Benitez, 2006). Less commonly, gene mutations inherited from a parent increase the risk of developing cancer (Honrado, Osorio, Palacios ; Benitez, 2006). In people with these inherited genetic changes, additional somatic mutations in other genes must occur for cancer to develop (Honrado, Osorio, Palacios ; Benitez, 2006). Additional factors that may influence a person’s risk of developing breast cancer include gender, age, ethnic background, a history of previous breast cancer, certain changes in breast tissue, and hormonal factors (Thompson ; Easton, 2004). A history of breast cancer in closely related family members is also an important risk factor, particularly if the cancer occurred at an early age (Thompson ; Easton, 2004). Women who have inherited certain mutations in these genes have a high risk of developing breast cancer, ovarian cancer, and several other types of cancer during their lifetimes (Thompson ; Easton, 2004). Inherited changes in several other genes, including CDH1, PTEN, STK11, and TP53, have been found to increase the risk of developing breast cancer (Thompson ; Easton, 2004). In hereditary breast cancer, the way that cancer risk is inherited depends on the gene involved (Walsh ; King, 2007). For example, mutations in the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes are inherited in an autosomal dominant patter, which means one copy of the altered gene in each cell is sufficient to increase a person’s chance of developing cancer (Walsh ; King, 2007). In other cases, the inheritance of breast cancer risk is unclear (Walsh ; King, 2007). It is important to emphasize that people inherit an increased risk of cancer, not the disease itself (Walsh ; King, 2007). Not all people who inherit mutations in these genes will develop cancer (Walsh ; King, 2007). Other Breast Diseases Two other diseases found in the breast other than breast carcinoma are breast fat necrosis and fibrocystic breast disease (Sacks, 2011; Silverman, 1994). Fybrocystic breast disease is a commonly used phrase to describe painful, lumpy breasts (Sacks 2011). Hormones made in the ovaries can make a woman’s breasts feel swollen, lumpy, or painful before during menstruation each month (Sacks 2011). Fibrocysitc changes in the breast with the menstrual cycle affect over half of women (Sacks, 2011). Symptoms are usually worse right before the menstrual period, and then improve after the period starts (Sacks, 2011). Symptoms can include pain in both breasts, breasts that feel swollen and heavy, pain or discomfort under the arms, and thick or lumpy breasts (Sacks, 2011). This disease can be treated with medication like acetaminophen or ibuprofen (Sacks, 2011). Breast Fat necrosis is a benign condition that can occur in your breast (Silverman. 1994). It consists of fatty tissue that has been bruised, injured, or has died (Silverman, 1994). Once fatty tissue has been injured or has died, it can gradually change into scar tissue or may collect as liquid within an oil cyst (Silverman, 1994). Fat necrosis does not lead to the development of breast cancer, but it may sometimes cause breast pain (Silverman, 1994). An area of fat necrosis in your breast may feel like a fairly hard lump, or like a section of thick skin (Silverman, 1994). The person may see some drainage from the nipple that is nearest to the bruised region (Silverman, 1994). The nipple may sometimes even pull inward a little bit or the breast skin may dimple above the lump of fat necrosis (Silverman, 1994). Each case of fat necrosis is unique, so treatments will vary but if the fat necrosis has occurred recently, using warm compresses may help it subside (Silverman, 1994). When fat necrosis causes pain, the person can use ibuprofen and aspirin, but if that doesn’t help, ask your doctor if a prescription medication may be used (Silverman, 1994). About 39,520 women in the U. S. were expected to die in 2011 from breast cancer, though death rates have been decreasing since 1990 — especially in women under 50 (â€Å"Learn about cancer,† 2011). These decreases are thought to be the result of treatment advances, earlier detection through screening, and increased awareness (â€Å"breastcancer. org,† 2012). References Peter, C. (2011, October 20). Medical news today. Retrieved from http://www. medicalnewstoday. com/info/cancer-oncology/ breastcancer. org. (n. d. ). (2012, March 14). Retrieved from http://www. breastcancer. org/symptoms/understand_bc/statistics. jsp Yi-Bin , C. , ; David , Z. (2011, 15 12). A. d. a. m. medical encyclopedia. Retrieved from http://www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0001911/ Mayo Clinic Staff. (2011, June 23). Ductal carcinoma in situ (dcis). Retrieved from http://www. mayoclinic. com/health/dcis/DS00983 Avon Foundation Breast Cancer (n. d. ). In http://www. hopkinsmedicine. org/avon_foundation_breast_center/breast_cancers_other_conditions/invasive_lobular_carcinoma. html. Stephan, P. (2008, July 24). Invasive Lobular Carcinoma. Retrieved from about. com website: http://breastcancer. about. com/od/types/p/ilc. html Dugdale, D. (2010, August 14). Pubmed. Retrieved from http://www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0002267/ Martin, L. (2012, January 18). Breast cancer facts. WebMD. Retrieved from http://women. webmd. om/guide/breast-cancer-arm-yourself-with-facts National Cancer Insitute. (2012). National cancer institute. Retrieved from http://www. cancer. gov/cancertopics/pdq/treatment/malebreast/Patient/page1 Attebery, L. , Adams, J. H. , ; Weiss, M. (2011, november 22). Male breast cancer. Retrieved from http://www. breastcancer. org/symptoms/types/male_bc/ National Cancer Institute. ( 2011). Male breast cancer. Retrieved from http://www. nlm. nih. gov/medlineplus/malebreastcancer. html Wax, A. (2011). Breast cancer in men: Symptoms, causes, treatments. Retrieved from http://www. webmd. com/breast-cancer/guide/breast-cancer-men American Cancer Society. (2011, September 29). American cancer society. Retrieved from http://www. cancer. org/Cancer/BreastCancer/DetailedGuide/breast-cancer-diagnosis NCI. (2010, September 22). National cancer institute. Retrieved from http://www. cancer. gov/cancertopics/factsheet/detection/mammograms Marshall, S. (2010, November 12). Webmd. Retrieved from http://women. webmd. com/mammogram-16573 Hoffman, M. (2010 February 18). Ductal carcinoma (invasive and in situ. Retrieved from http://www. webmd. com/breast-cancer/ductal-carcinoma-invasive-in-situ ACR. (2012). Mammography facts. Retrieved from http://www. ammographysaveslives. org/facts. aspx Hirshaut, Y. , ; Pressman, P. I. (2008). Breast cancer: The complete guide. (5th ed. ). New York, NY: Bantam Dell. Radiological Society of North America. (2011, June 24). Radiologyinfo. org. Retrieved from http://www. radiologyinfo. org/en/info. cfm? pg=mammo ASCO. (2011, January 26). Breast Cancer- Male Retrieved from http://www. cancer. net/patient/Cancer Types/Breast Cancer – Male/? skid= Stoppler, M. C. (2011). Medicinenet. Retrieved from http://www. medicinenet. com/mammogram/article. html Imaginis. (2012). Breast cancer mri – magnetic resonance imaging. Retrieved from http://www. maginis. com/mri-scan/magnetic-resonance-breast-imaging-mri-mr-3 Eisenpreis, B. (1999). A young woman’s guide to breast cancer prevention. New York: The Rosen Publishing Group. Marshall, S. (2009, April 29). Breast biopsy. Retrieved from http://women. webmd. com/breast-biopsy Metcalf, T. , Metcalf, G. (2008). Perspective on diseases and disorders. (1 ed. ). Michigan: Thomson Gale. Chen, S. ( 2007, April 10). Meta-analysis of BRCA1 and BRCA2 penetrance. Retrieved from http://ghr. nlm. nih. gov/condition/breast-cancer Honrado, E. , Osorio, A. , Palacios, J. , Benitez, J. (2006, September 25). Pathology and gene expression of hereditary breast tumors associated with brca1, brca2 and chek2 gene mutations. Retrieved from http://ghr. nlm. nih. gov/condition/breast-cancer/show/References Thompson, D. , Easton, D. (2004, July 9). The genetic epidemiology of breast cancer genes. Retrieved from http://ghr. nlm. nih. gov/condition/breast-cancer Walsh, T. , King, M. (2007, February 11). Ten genes for inherited breast cancer. Retrieved from http://ghr. nlm. nih. gov/condition/breast-cancer Marisa , W. (2011, August 03). Stages of breast cancer. Retrieved from http://www. breastcancer. org/symptoms/diagnosis/staging. jsp NCI. 2009). Breast cancer treatment (pdq). Retrieved from http://www. cancer. gov/cancertopics/pdq/treatment/breast/Patient/page2 Lippman, M. E. (2005). Cancer monthly. Retrieved from http://www. cancermonthly. com/cancer_basics/breast. asp American Cancer Society. (2012, March 06). Breast cancer. Retrieved from http://www. cancer. org/Cancer/BreastCancer/DetailedG uide/breast-cancer-staging Reynolds, D. (2010, March 26). Emaxhealth. Retrieved from http://www. emaxhealth. com/1506/98/36185/one-third-breast-cancer-cases-avoided-diet-and-exercise. html NCI. (2010, September 22). National cancer institute. Retrieved from http://www. cancer. ov/cancertopics/factsheet/detection/mammograms Sacks, D. N. (2011, November 16). Fibrocystic breast disease. Retrieved from http://www. nlm. nih. gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000912. htm Silverman, P. (1994, July). Breast fat necrosis – symptoms, causes and treatments. Retrieved from http://breastcancer. about. com/od/whenitsnotcancer/tp/Breast-Fat-Necrosis. htm American Cancer Society. U. S. Breast cancer statistics. (2011, September 29). Retrieved from http://www. cancer. org/Cancer/BreastCancer/index Hail, J. (2011, 09). National breast cancer foundation, inc.. Retrieved from http://www. nationalbreastcancer. org/About-Breast-Cancer/ Breast Cancer Breast Cancer

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For an organization to achieve its business strategy, leadership and management development is key - Essay Example The roles of both the leaders and managers require training and support so as to make best use of their effectiveness. Leadership and management development involves different practices that are necessary for making the best use of a companys human resource (Storey 2004). Training of employees helps to offer critical skills and information that will catapult an organization to a higher level and compete with other organizations effectively. Leadership and management development is important to businesses because it gives the owners of the business an opportunity to the performance of employees. Training of managers will positively influence employees within a company or business (Fulmer 2007). Leadership and management development enables a business to provide managers with the skills and capability necessary for their respective tasks and make the business succeed. A company that boasts of an effective leadership and management development programs improves the productivity of workers since the programs allow the workers to be motivated. Motivated employees will lead to higher productivity hence the success of the organization. The internal development allows an organization to furnish its employees with the right skills that the organization needs instead of generalizing skills (Fulmer 2007). Employee development helps to retain younger managers who may require an opportunity to grow through training with the organization. Many companies train talented employees on different facets of their jobs, although a section of them may not succeed in providing personal support to the employees. To avoid making such mistakes, managers ought to take a keen interest in the future of their juniors by mentoring them. Young employees need guidance from experienced leaders so as to avoid making mistakes when they must make a decision for the organization. Socialization programs such as offering mentorship can familiarize new leaders with the vision,